Self Cultivation

Self Cultivation emerges across the depth-psychology and contemplative corpus not as a single doctrine but as a contested field of practice in which the transformation of the self—its refinement, purification, or transcendence—is pursued through radically different means depending on the tradition. In Taoist inner alchemy (neidan), as elaborated by Liu I-ming’s commentaries on the I Ching, self-cultivation is primarily the work of refining away the ‘human mind’ so that the ‘mind of Tao’ may become manifest—a process that moves through breath, vitality, spirit, and elixir formation. The Quanzhen school, as documented by Livia Kohn, positions cultivation as the emptying of mind toward immortality, in explicit dialogue with Chan Buddhist illumination and Neo-Confucian moral perfectionism. Nietzsche, refracted through Sharpe and Ure, reframes self-cultivation as an aesthetic and ethical practice rooted in amor fati and the thought of eternal recurrence—a technique by which one discloses one’s ownmost conscience and realizes one’s ‘personal infinity.’ The Philokalia tradition situates cultivation in the spiritual disciplining of the passions through virtue and contemplation. What unites these otherwise divergent positions is the shared conviction that the unreformed self is insufficient—that transformation requires sustained practice, inner attentiveness, and often the guidance of a teacher or text.

In the library 16 passages

The thought of eternal repetition is crucial to Nietzsche’s ethics of self-cultivation because answering the question ‘do you want it again and again?’ is the means by which we can disclose our ownmost conscience.

This passage argues that Nietzsche’s ethics of self-cultivation centres on eternal recurrence as the decisive test for authentic individuality, replacing universalist morality with a practice of self-disclosure.

Sharpe, Matthew and Ure, Michael, Philosophy as a Way of Life: History, Dimensions, Directions, 2021thesis

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The thought of eternal repetition is crucial to Nietzsche’s ethics of self-cultivation because answering the question ‘do you want it again and again?’ is the means by which we can disclose our ownmost conscience.

Parallel to the Sharpe passage, this text presents Nietzsche’s eternal recurrence as the structural core of a modern ethics of self-cultivation grounded in authentic individuality rather than generalizable rules.

Matthew Sharpe and Michael Ure, Philosophy as a Way of Life: History, Dimensions, Directions, 2021thesis

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Refining the self simply means refining away this human mind. When you refine away the human mind, the mind of Tao spontaneously becomes manifest.

Liu I-ming defines self-cultivation as the systematic refinement of the human mind—its agitations, desires, and ego-formations—so that the mind of Tao may emerge spontaneously in its place.

Liu I-ming, The Taoist I Ching, 1986thesis

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Taoists consider self-refinement to set up the foundation as primary. The sages of all three teachings first taught people to get rid of personal wrath and cupidity.

This passage positions Taoist self-refinement—the elimination of wrath and cupidity—as the foundational act shared across Confucian, Buddhist, and Taoist traditions, making self-cultivation the common ground of the Three Teachings.

Liu I-ming, The Taoist I Ching, 1986thesis

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Self-cultivation must not violate the principle of nonaction. Any effort contrary to what the Laozi has termed ‘naturalness’ (ziran) is counter-productive and doomed to failure.

Yan Zun’s commentary establishes a critical constraint on self-cultivation: it must conform to naturalness and nonaction, or it defeats itself—framing cultivation as a paradox of effortless effort.

Kohn, Livia, Daoism Handbook, 2000thesis

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To cultivate the mind simply means to empty it of all thoughts. This concept of subduing the mind is highly similar to Chan Buddhism’s illuminating the mind; however, to Quanzhen followers this is the path to immortality.

Quanzhen Daoism defines mind cultivation as complete thought-emptying, distinguishing its soteriological aim—immortality—from the Chan goal of enlightenment even while acknowledging their structural similarity.

Kohn, Livia, Daoism Handbook, 2000thesis

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From practical plans for physical training to self-cultivation through taking herbs and regulating the interior fire. All this implies that inner alchemy in the late Chosŏn had attained a certain level of profundity.

This passage documents the Korean reception of inner alchemical self-cultivation, showing how the tradition integrated physical regimen, herbal medicine, and interior fire regulation into a comprehensive programme.

Kohn, Livia, Daoism Handbook, 2000supporting

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Cultivation of the state of mind characterized as ‘bright and pure’ was greatly desired by the ancient Japanese in order to foster a feeling of oneness with nature and their fellow beings.

In the Buddhist-Jungian comparative context, self-cultivation is presented as the deliberate cultivation of a non-ego-centred mind—pure and bright—aimed at dissolving separateness and realising oneness with environment and community.

Spiegelman, J. Marvin, Buddhism and Jungian Psychology, 1985supporting

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In cultivating practice, one conforms and harmonizes, adapting to each individual situation as it is; nobody can fathom such changes, or see how one acts or lies hidden.

Liu Yiming’s commentary presents self-cultivation as a practice of adaptive concealment—outward conformity with worldly convention masking an inner adherence to Tao, invisible to those who lack discernment.

Thomas Cleary, Liu Yiming, The Taoist I Ching, 1986supporting

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In cultivating practice, one conforms and harmonizes, adapting to each individual situation as it is; nobody can fathom such changes, or see how one acts or lies hidden.

Self-cultivation here demands the paradoxical discipline of appearing ordinary while practising the Tao inwardly, a form of cultivation that remains imperceptible to those outside the tradition.

Liu I-ming, The Taoist I Ching, 1986supporting

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It is not only for three years that they will not find a way out of danger. This is base, foolish obstinacy, never cultivating oneself and ending up bad.

Liu I-ming presents the failure to cultivate oneself as the paradigm of self-inflicted ruin, contrasting the path of conscious self-refinement with the self-binding of those who abandon the practice entirely.

Liu I-ming, The Taoist I Ching, 1986supporting

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Such virtue is generated by the practice of the commandments: in this way, with God’s co-operation or, rather, by His strength alone, we destroy the forces of evil that are opposed to sanctity.

The Philokalia presents self-cultivation in the Orthodox hesychast register: it is the disciplined practice of virtue and contemplation that, through divine co-operation, annihilates the passions and generates spiritual knowledge.

Palmer, G. E. H. and Sherrard, Philip and Ware, Kallistos (trs.), The Philokalia, Volume 2, 1981supporting

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asked how he should go about cultivating his person. Laozi said, ‘Your face is grim, your eyes are fierce… Scrutinizing ever so carefully, crafty in wisdom, parading your arrogance—all this invites mistrust.’

In the Zhuangzi, Laozi’s response to a question about self-cultivation subverts the questioner’s assumptions, suggesting that aggressive self-display and cunning are obstacles rather than instruments of genuine personal cultivation.

Watson, Burton, The Complete Works of Zhuangzi, 2013aside

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A small handbook prepared as a guide for his followers. It includes six discourses on daily cultivation, five on inner cultivation and four on the meaning of ‘realizing the Dao.’

Kohn documents Wang Zhe’s systematic division of cultivation into daily practice, inner cultivation, and Dao-realisation, illustrating how Quanzhen organises self-cultivation as a graduated pedagogical programme.

Kohn, Livia, Daoism Handbook, 2000aside

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Related terms