Learning occupies a peculiarly contested position within the depth-psychology corpus. The behaviorist lineage—represented here most extensively by the Walker compendium shelved under James's name—treats learning as an empirical phenomenon susceptible to rigorous operational definition: a change in behavior produced by reinforced practice, information processing, or neurophysiological plasticity. This tradition generates an elaborate taxonomy distinguishing procedural from cognitive learning, place from response learning, massed from distributed practice, and motor from verbal modalities. Against this systematic framework, Julian Jaynes mounts the most radical challenge: consciousness, he argues, is not merely unnecessary for much learning but actively inhibitory of it, suggesting that learning is better characterized as 'organic' than conscious. Eric Kandel situates learning within the neuroscience of synaptic plasticity, tracing the concept from Pavlovian excitability through Kornorski's structural transformations to modern models of memory consolidation. Robert Sardello, by contrast, relocates learning from the laboratory to the ontological domain of soul, arguing that genuine learning 'belongs to the very nature of living' and that its abstraction into psychotherapy produces cultural iatrogenesis. These tensions—between mechanistic and phenomenological accounts, between conscious effort and organic acquisition, between neurological substrate and soul—constitute the generative fault lines through which depth psychology approaches this deceptively familiar term.
learning is much better described as being 'organic' rather than conscious. Consciousness takes you into the task, giving you the goal to be reached. But from then on... it is as if the learning is done for you.
Jaynes argues that consciousness is not only unnecessary for most learning but actually inhibits it, positioning learning as a fundamentally sub-conscious, organic process.
, The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, 1976thesis
Learning, however, as it has been described here, belongs to the very nature of living, and only when removed from the world produces the self-perpetuating illness of psychotherapy.
Sardello redefines learning as an ontological condition of ensouled living, contrasting it with the iatrogenic abstraction of psychotherapy, and calling for an 'education of the soul' absent from contemporary culture.
, Facing the World with Soul: The Reimagination of Modern Life, 1992thesis
we will develop an alternative definition of learning, essentially substituting the concept of information processing for reinforced practice and eliminating the requirement of relative permanence.
Walker proposes replacing the classical reinforcement-based definition of learning with an information-processing model, broadening the concept beyond behavioral permanence.
, The Principles of Psychology, 1890thesis
plasticity, or plastic change, leads... to 'permanent functional transformations... in particular systems of neurons as a result of appropriate stimuli or their combination.'
Kandel grounds learning in Kornorski's neurological concept of plasticity, identifying structural synaptic transformation as the physical substrate of acquired knowledge.
, In search of memory the emergence of a new science of mind, 2006thesis
arriving at a satisfactory definition of learning turns out to be much less so... our knowledge of those inner experiences—including the experiences of learning and memory—is based on the observation of behavior.
Walker establishes that despite its apparent familiarity, learning resists clean definition, and that all scientific knowledge of it remains anchored in behavioral observation rather than direct introspection.
, The Principles of Psychology, 1890supporting
insight developed slowly in the course of much prior learning. Children between 2 and 5 years old performed in much the same way as the monkeys above, but older children required fewer problems to develop the appropriate strategy.
Harlow's learning-set experiments demonstrate that insight is not an immediate cognitive leap but itself a learned capacity accruing through incremental prior experience.
, The Principles of Psychology, 1890supporting
A strong empiricist position holds that learning accounts for the totality of language learning. An alternative view holds that language develops through the maturation of a special, inborn language mechanism.
The Skinner–Chomsky debate frames the rationalist-empiricist fault line in language acquisition, with learning positioned as either the complete explanation or merely one factor alongside innate mechanisms.
, The Principles of Psychology, 1890supporting
Most learning requires time and effort; and it's better not to put off studying until an all-night cram session of massed practice just before an exam.
Walker translates distributed-practice research into a practical principle, underscoring that temporal spacing is among the most potent variables governing the efficiency of learning.
, The Principles of Psychology, 1890supporting
all the possible varieties of learning take place in the nervous system of an organism and thus may represent different aspects of the same fundamental neurophysiological process.
Walker argues that despite the diversity of learning taxonomies—procedural, cognitive, animal, human—all varieties may ultimately reduce to a single underlying neurophysiological process.
, The Principles of Psychology, 1890supporting
Escaping from the box is a satisfying state of affairs that strengthens the connection between the stimuli inside the box and the successful response of pulling the string.
Thorndike's law of effect is presented as the foundational mechanism of instrumental learning, linking reinforcement to the consolidation of stimulus-response connections.
, The Principles of Psychology, 1890supporting
Motor learning is the process of acquiring a motor skill. Motor learning impinges on everyone's life in countless ways.
Walker introduces motor learning as a ubiquitous domain of skill acquisition, distinct from verbal learning yet governed by the same general principles of practice and feedback.
, The Principles of Psychology, 1890supporting
Amount of practice is perhaps the most potent variable in serial learning and, indeed, in learning in general.
Practice quantity is identified as the single most powerful determinant of serial learning, anchoring the empirical study of learning in quantitative experimental methods.
, The Principles of Psychology, 1890supporting
Skinner (1954b, 1958) was responsible for the wave of interest in programmed learning dating from the 1950s.
Skinner's operant framework extended into programmed instruction, translating laboratory reinforcement principles into applied educational technology.
, The Principles of Psychology, 1890supporting
Once I get the same can again and again for the same button press, I get no more surprises; there is no prediction error, I don't change my behavior, and thus I learn nothing more about these buttons.
Schultz grounds learning in reward prediction error, arguing that learning occurs only when outcomes deviate from expectation, and ceases when prediction error reaches zero.
, Dopamine reward prediction error coding, 2016supporting
place learning is much more efficient than response learning in the present experiment.
Tolman's cognitive mapping research demonstrates that spatial or place-based learning strategies are more efficient than purely response-based ones, supporting a cognitive over a strict S-R account.
, The Principles of Psychology, 1890supporting
Many real-world tasks utilize PA learning, such as learning foreign words and their English equivalents, English words and their definitions, and the people or dates associated with historic events.
Paired-associates learning is presented as the laboratory analogue of a broad class of real-world associative learning tasks, connecting experimental paradigms to everyday cognition.
, The Principles of Psychology, 1890aside
Language acquisition—learning to talk, read, and write—is closely associated with the periods of infancy and childhood. But this process continues long after a child has learned to read and write fluently.
Walker extends language acquisition as a form of learning across the entire lifespan, challenging the view that it terminates in childhood.
, The Principles of Psychology, 1890aside