Pregnancy

woman experiences her transformative character naturally and unreflectingly in pregnancy, in her relation to the growth of her child, and in childbearing. Here woman is the organ and instrument of the transformation of both her own structure and that of the child within her

Neumann identifies pregnancy as the primary locus of the Archetypal Feminine’s transformative character, positioning it as the experiential ground from which the woman’s blood-transformation mysteries and thou-relationship arise.

Neumann, Erich, The Great Mother: An Analysis of the Archetype, 1955thesis

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pregnancy involves more than physical changes. The bearing of children is a biological task. The roots of the maternal instinct reach back into the deepest layers of a woman’s nature, touching forces of which she may be profoundly unconscious. When a woman becomes pregnant these ancient powers stir within her

Harding argues that pregnancy activates unconscious archetypal forces whose psychic consequences persist regardless of conscious intention, making interference with pregnancy a psychologically perilous act.

Harding, Esther, the way of all women, 1970thesis

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As soon as a woman reaches a stage of consciousness which permits her to realize the experience of maternity as a task, something which transcends personal likes and dislikes enters the picture and the woman is thereby freed to realize herself consciously through her function of mother.

Harding contends that when pregnancy is consciously received as a transpersonal task rather than a personal imposition, it becomes the vehicle for a woman’s individuation and self-realization.

Harding, Esther, the way of all women, 1970thesis

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It seems likely that there is an archetype of pregnancy that is not to be taken literally and that it affects or rouses both genders who then must find a way to meaningfully symbolize it for themselves.

Estés proposes that pregnancy constitutes a genuine psychic archetype, rooted in the menstrual-reproductive cycle’s alchemical symbolism, yet operative as a symbolic process that both sexes must metabolize.

Clarissa Pinkola Estés, Ph D, Women Who Run With the Wolves Myths and Stories of the Wild, 2017thesis

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changes in women who are about to have a baby or who have just had one. These changes are at first almost physiological, and they start with the physical holding of the baby in the womb.

Winnicott locates the origin of the mother’s radical reorientation of self and world in the somatic act of holding the infant in the womb, grounding object-relational theory in the bodily reality of pregnancy.

Winnicott, Donald, The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment, 1965thesis

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A very early factor is the stresses pregnant women are under—emotional, economic, personal, professional, and social. As the physician and psychoanalyst Ursula Volz-Boers points out, ‘Intrauterine life is not a paradise as some people try to make us believe. We are the receiver of all the happiness and of all the anxieties and difficulties of our parents.’

Maté situates maternal stress during pregnancy as a primary vector through which social inequality and emotional suffering are transmitted to the developing fetus, framing prenatal environment as a political and clinical priority.

Maté, Gabor, The Myth of Normal: Trauma, Illness, and Healing in a Toxic Culture, 2022thesis

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she was interfering with a process which goes far deeper than the conscious wish… something deep within her had stirred — that the maternal instinct had begun to take possession of her.

Harding illustrates through clinical case material that terminating a pregnancy does not neutralise the unconscious maternal activation already underway, with breakdown as the psychological consequence.

Harding, Esther, the way of all women, 1970supporting

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there is a grave risk that the woman herself may fail to make this differentiation. She may magnify her disabilities, perhaps unconsciously, to gain attention from her husband, claiming care and solicitude for herself, instead of for herself as mother—the priestess of life.

Harding examines the relational distortions pregnancy can provoke, arguing that failure to distinguish personal ego-demands from the legitimate claims of the maternal role leads to psychological and marital confusion.

Harding, Esther, the way of all women, 1970supporting

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ancient peoples intuitively understood the sanctity of the intrauterine environment… ‘in our clan, tradition was that if you were angry or upset, you weren’t even allowed to go near a pregnant woman. We didn’t want you to inflict your troubles on her baby.’

Maté marshals indigenous cultural knowledge to corroborate neuroscientific findings on prenatal stress transmission, situating the protection of the pregnant woman as an ancient communal value.

Maté, Gabor, The Myth of Normal: Trauma, Illness, and Healing in a Toxic Culture, 2022supporting

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stress or fear in the pregnant mother has an effect on the offspring. A loud noise and the accompanying reaction of fear produced hormonal changes in the rat mothers which then affected the embryo’s development.

Greene deploys experimental data on maternal stress to argue that the fetal environment registers the mother’s psychological states, lending empirical support to the astrological and depth-psychological emphasis on prenatal experience.

Liz Greene, Howard Sasportas, The Development of Personality: Seminars in Psychological Astrology, Volume 1, 1987supporting

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The body in pregnancy does what it wants and knows to do. The new life latches on, divides, swells. A woman at this stage of the psychic process may enter another enantiodromia.

Estés links bodily pregnancy to a psychic enantiodromia in which previously held values are overturned and new, often extreme cravings and orientations emerge, reading gestation as a catalytic psychic event.

Clarissa Pinkola Estés, Ph D, Women Who Run With the Wolves Myths and Stories of the Wild, 2017supporting

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traumatic experiences form the Connection Survival Style: (1) prenatal trauma and prenatal attachment; (2) birth trauma; (3) perinatal trauma… prenatal trauma can make birth more difficult, and a traumatic birth can affect the subsequent process of attachment.

Heller identifies the prenatal period as the earliest stratum of developmental trauma, arguing that conditions during pregnancy shape somatic, nervous-system, and psychic vulnerability in a cumulative and cascading fashion.

Laurence Heller, Ph D, Healing Developmental Trauma How Early Trauma Affectssupporting

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a newly pregnant, drug-dependent patient… Many addicted women decide to have their babies, rather than choose the route of an early abortion. Celia is determined to see the pregnancy through and to keep the baby.

Maté uses the clinical case of a drug-dependent pregnant woman to illustrate how pregnancy intersects with addiction, attachment history, and the drive to restore lost children, refusing to reduce the situation to a simple medical calculation.

Maté, Gabor, In the Realm of Hungry Ghosts: Close Encounters With Addiction, 2008supporting

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Another woman may wish to avoid pregnancy for more serious reasons. She may have a less selfish outlook and yet dislike intensely the interruption in her life which motherhood involves.

Harding catalogues the range of women’s conscious responses to unwanted or unexpected pregnancy, distinguishing between egotistic resistance and more principled ambivalence, while insisting neither escapes deeper unconscious consequence.

Harding, Esther, the way of all women, 1970supporting

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Using teenage pregnancy and promiscuity as measures of sexual behavior, the ACE Score has a proportionate relationship to these outcomes. So too does miscarriage of pregnancy, indicating the complexity of the relationship of early life psychosocial experience to what are usually considered purely biomedical outcomes.

The ACE Study data presented by Lanius demonstrates that adverse childhood experiences predict both teenage pregnancy and miscarriage, establishing a direct empirical link between early trauma and reproductive outcomes.

Lanius, edited by Ruth A, The impact of early life trauma on health and disease the, 2010supporting

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in the case of miscarriages, as in the case of abortions, friends and family members are often unaware of the pregnancy or uncomfortable talking about such an experience. Their discomfort does little to help the parents in the resolution of their grief.

Worden addresses the disenfranchised grief that surrounds pregnancy loss, arguing that social silence around miscarriage and abortion impedes the mourning process and demands specific therapeutic attention.

J William Worden, ABPP, Grief Counseling and Grief Therapy A Handbook for the, 2018supporting

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there still seems to be a special time just preceding delivery where strong biologically based motivations take hold. This is probably because of the many hormonal changes

Panksepp identifies the hormonal surges of late pregnancy as the neurobiological substrate for the intensification of nurturant motivation, grounding the depth-psychological emphasis on maternal instinct in affective neuroscience.

Panksepp, Jaak, Affective Neuroscience The Foundations of Human and Animal, 1998supporting

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No between-group differences in ADHD symptom scores were determined across pregnancy between medication use groups; however, hyperactivity scores had a larger decrease as pregnancy progressed in medication continuers.

This systematic review offers the observation that ADHD symptom profiles, particularly hyperactivity, shift across the course of pregnancy, suggesting that the hormonal milieu of gestation modulates neurodevelopmental symptomatology.

al., Osianlis et, ADHD and sex hormones in females: A systematic review, 2025aside

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parents can be counseled about subsequent pregnancies. Very often they are afraid of having another child because of the possibility of SIDS.

Worden notes that fear of recurrent loss following SIDS shapes parents’ approach to subsequent pregnancies, illustrating how grief can colonise future reproductive decisions.

J William Worden, ABPP, Grief Counseling and Grief Therapy A Handbook for the, 2018aside

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a significant relationship with the use of antidepressants, contraceptives, complications during pregnancy, and a mood disorder in remission

Dorani’s regression analysis finds that pregnancy complications co-vary significantly with PMDD symptom severity in women with ADHD, pointing to a hormonal-reproductive axis of vulnerability in this population.

Dorani, Farangis, Prevalence of hormone-related mood disorder symptoms in women with ADHD, 2021aside

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